There is increasing concern that most current published research findings are false. The probability that a research claim is true may depend on study power and bias, the number of other studies on the same question, and, importantly, the ratio of true to no relationships among the relationships probed in each scientific field. In this framework, a research finding is less likely to be true when the studies conducted in a field are smaller; when effect sizes are smaller; when there is a greater number and lesser preselection of tested relationships; where there is greater flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes; when there is greater financial and other interest and prejudice; and when more teams are involved in a scientific field in chase of statistical significance. Simulations show that for most study designs and settings, it is more likely for a research claim to be false than true. Moreover, for many current scientific fields, claimed research findings may often be simply accurate measures of the prevailing bias. In this essay, I discuss the implications of these problems for the conduct and interpretation of research.

The landscape of overt surveillance camera systems in public spaces has changed significantly since the introduction of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012 and the Secretary of State’s Surveillance Camera Code of Practice 2013. An evolution and proliferation of new technologies and new capabilities create a dynamic challenge for regulators, policy makers and lawmakers. The risk potential for intrusion on citizens has significantly increased both by lawful operators of surveillance camera systems and those individual or State actors who seek to ‘hack’ in to systems. Cyber security has moved to the top of the security agenda.